Effect of Oil Spills on Seafood

Purpose Statement The purpose of this paper is to discuss the effects of oil spills on seafood. It will also identify and discuss various solutions to the effects. Moreover, it will recommend measures that can be taken to prevent future oil spills in the sea.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Effect of Oil Spills on Seafood specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Introduction This paper will shed light on the extent to which seafood has been adversely affected by oil spills. Although the effects of oil spills on seafood are numerous, this paper will focus only on three major effects. Empirical studies indicate that oil can adversely affect the health of sea plants and animals that come into contact with it. In this regard, it can contaminate seafood, thereby affecting the health of coastal populations negatively. Thus, oil spills are major problems that have to be addressed in order to prevent contamination of seafood. B ackground An oil spill refers to â€Å"an accidental release of liquid petroleum (crude or refined) into the environment, especially, large water bodies such as oceans† (Kaushik, 2006, p. 96). Seas provide seafood such as fish, crabs, shrimps, lobsters, seaweeds, and microalgae. Thus, discussing the effects of oil spills is important because it can provide insights that may help in maintaining a reliable supply of safe and high quality seafood. History of Oil Spills In the last four decades, increased exploration and transportation of oil through seas has led to several incidents of oil spills. In 1979, 140 million gallons of crude oil spilt into the Gulf of Mexico due to an accidental explosion in an oil well. In the same year, two oil tankers collided near the coast of Tobago, thereby spilling 88 million gallons of oil in the Caribbean Sea. In 2010, an explosion at the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig led to discharge of over 5 million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico ( Trevors Saier, 2010, pp. 1-3). Effects of Oil Spills on Seafood Reduced Supply of Seafood The supply of seafood often reduces significantly in the first six months after an oil spill. One of the reasons for the reduced supply is that oil contains toxic chemicals that poison sea animals (IEM, 2010, pp. 4-54). Empirical studies indicate that sea animals can be poisoned in several ways. To begin with, animals such as fish often breathe by obtaining oxygen from water through their gills. Thus, the toxic chemicals in the oil-contaminated water will clog the fish’s gills and spread to the rest of its body. Various fish species are also poisoned whenever they ingest contaminated food (IEM, 2010, pp. 4-54). For instance, most species of fish feed on planktons that are often contaminated with chemicals after an oil spill. Generally, most sea animals die immediately after being poisoned (IEM, 2010, pp. 4-54). This explains the reduction of the supply of seafood such as fish and crabs after an oil spill. Oil spills also cause severe injuries and damage to internal organs of sea animals. For instance, the immune systems of most fish, crabs, and lobsters become very weak after they come into contact with oil (Barron, 2012, pp. 315-320). This exposes the animals to disease-causing pathogens that ultimately cause their deaths (Gohlke, Doke, Fitzgerald, 2011, pp. 1062-1069).Advertising Looking for report on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Similarly, the growth of edible sea plants such as microalgae is negatively affected by oil spills. In particular, oil deposits on the seafloor changes the composition of the soil and the ecosystem in the deep sea. As a result, several edible sea plants die as their supply of nutrients reduce. Contamination of Seafood Contamination of seafood is one of the short-term effects of oil spills. The chemicals ingested by edible sea animals pose a great health risk to the populations that depend on seafood (Gohlke, Doke, Fitzgerald, 2011, pp. 1062-1069). The digestive systems of most sea animals do very little to alter the chemicals ingested after an oil spill. Thus, human beings are equally at risk of being poisoned or falling sick after eating contaminated seafood (Griggs, 2014). Contamination of seafood is determined by the type of oil, how close the spill is to fishing grounds, and weather conditions (Gohlke, Doke, Fitzgerald, 2011, pp. 1062-1069). Alteration of the Genetic Composition of Seafood Change in the genetic composition of edible sea plants and animals is both a short-term and a long-term effect of oil spills. Oil deposits in the on the seafloor often trigger genetic reactions among fish, crabs, shrimps, and various species of sea plants. Alteration of the genetic composition of edible sea animals has the following effects. First, genetic reactions cause deformities that reduce the ability of sea animals such as shrimps, c rabs, and lobsters to survive in their environment (Upton, 2011, pp. 1-14). Most species of crabs often develop severe lesions when they come into contact with crude oil. The lesions increase the risk of fungal or bacterial infections among crabs. In addition, the lesions make the crabs unsafe for human consumption. Oil causes deformities or damage to the gills and liver of most species of fish. As a result, the fish develop complications such as cardiovascular failures that eventually lead to their death. In the first six months after the 2010 BP oil spill, the shrimps harvested in the Gulf of Mexico and Florida were found to be eyeless and their bodies had abnormal growths. In addition, most female shrimps had babies attached on their bodies. Second, genetic reactions cause fatal diseases among fish, shrimps, and edible sea plants. Sick fish can hardly survive in harsh sea conditions such as low temperatures and increased predation. Moreover, sick fish can cause severe health cond itions and diseases when consumed by human beings (Krisberg, 2010). Third, the reproduction rate of fish and other edible sea animals reduce significantly in the long-term as their genes react to the chemicals in oil (IEM, 2010, pp. 4-54).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Effect of Oil Spills on Seafood specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More When the genes of fish change due to exposure to the chemicals in oil, their egg-bearing ability reduces sharply. Generally, several fish species fail to hatch their eggs after being exposed to oil. Moreover, the eggs that are able to hatch tend to be premature and their larvae are often deformed (Upton, 2011, pp. 1-14). These complications reduce the rate at which fish and other edible sea animals reproduce after an oil spill. The rate of reproduction can remain low for a very long time since oil deposits can stay on the seafloor for several years (Upton, 2011, pp. 1-14). Moreove r, significant genetic alteration can lead to extinction of some sea animals and plants. In this case, the overall effect will be a remarkable reduction in the supply of seafood in future. Solutions Cleaning Up the Spill One of the best solutions to the effects of an oil spill is to clean it up through the following strategies. First, booms and skimmers can be used to remove oil from the sea (Graham, 2010). This method prevents the spread of oil to key areas such the breeding grounds for fish. This helps in preventing contamination of seafood and destruction of edible sea organisms (Kaushik, 2006, p. 168). Second, dispersants can be used to accelerate the oil’s biodegradation rate. This improves the penetration of light and dissolution of oxygen in water, thereby enhancing the survival of edible sea plants and animals. Establishing Conservation Sanctuaries Conservation sanctuaries should be established to prevent significant reduction of the supply of seafood (Kaushik, 2006, p. 170). The sanctuaries can be used as breading grounds where endangered species of fish, crabs, and lobsters can reproduce in order to avoid extinction (Kaushik, 2006, p. 172). The sanctuaries can also be used to treat sick fish, lobsters, and crabs. Restoring the Sea Plant Population Biological agents can be used to remove oil deposits on the seafloor to allow sea plants to grow. The biological agents include microorganisms such as bacteria that break down oil into non-toxic substances such as carbon dioxide (Michel, Shigenaka, Hoff, 2013). As the biological agents remove the oil deposits, fertilizing nutrients can be added in the affected areas to accelerate the growth of edible sea plants. Recommendations First, oil spills in various seas can be prevented if alternative transportation methods are used. For instance, oil can be refined at source and transported via underground pipelines to various destinations. Moreover, advanced technologies that enhance the safety of oil vesse ls should be adopted to prevent oil spills during transportation.Advertising Looking for report on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Second, regulation in the oil industry should focus on enhancing safety standards in offshore drilling rigs. Industry regulators should ensure that all oil companies adopt safety measures to prevent accidental oil spills that are attributed to system failures. This includes acquiring equipment that facilitates early detection of explosions at drilling rigs. Third, oil companies should be held responsible for the effects of oil spills. They should pay the cost of cleaning up the sea after an oil spill. This will encourage oil companies to engage in ethical behaviors and to avoid risky operations that can lead to unnecessary oil spills. Conclusion The effects of oil spills on seafood include reduced supply, contamination, and alteration of genetic composition. One of the best solutions to the effects of oil spills on seafood is to clean up the affected area as soon as possible. This helps in reducing the exposure of sea animals and plants to the toxic chemicals in oil, thereby prevent ing contamination of seafood. Oil spills can be prevented by improving regulation in the oil industry. References Barron, M. (2012). Ecological impacts of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill: Implications for immunotoxicity. Toxicologic Pathology, 40(1), 315-320. Gohlke, J., Doke, D., Fitzgerald, T. (2011). A review of seafood safety after the Deepwater Horizon blowout . Environ Health Perspective, 119(8) , 1062-1069. Graham, P. (2010). Deep sea oil cleanup techniques: Applicability, trade-offs and advantages.  Web. Griggs, T. (2014). Oil-hurricane mix could spell disaster for Gulf areas.  Web. IEM. (2010). A study of the economic impacts of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. New York: IEM. Kaushik, A. (2006). Perspectives in Environmental Studies. New York, NY : McGrwa-Hill. Krisberg, K. (2010). U.S. Gulf oil spill poses public health threat: Responses targeting workers, residents, food, and air quality.  Web. Michel, J., Shigenaka, G. Hoff, R. (2013). Oils spill response and cle anup techniques.  Web. Trevors, J., Saier, M. (2010). The legacy of oil spills. Water Air Soil Pollut, 211(1) , 1-3. Upton, H. (2011). The Deeepwater Horizon oil spill and the Gulf of Mexico fishing industry. Washington D.C: Congressional Research Service . Evaluation of References Barron, M. (2012). Ecological impacts of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill: Implications for immunotoxicity. Toxicologic Pathology, 40(1), 315-320. This peer-reviewed journal article highlights the ecological effects of oil spills in the sea. Specifically, it highlights the effects the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on the Gulf of Mexico. Thus, it is useful in obtaining information concerning the health effects of oil on edible sea animals and plants. Gohlke, J., Doke, D., Fitzgerald, T. (2011). A review of seafood safety after the Deepwater Horizon blowout . Environ Health Perspective, 119(8) , 1062-1069. This is a peer-reviewed journal article that provides insights on the effects of oil spill on seafood . It sheds light on issues such as contamination of seafood after an oil spill. Graham, P. (2010). Deep sea oil cleanup techniques: Applicability, trade-offs and advantages. This website is owned by ProQuest, which is a leading search engine and database for millions of scholarly articles. This article provides a detailed analysis of the techniques that can be used to clean up an oil spill. It also analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of each technique. Griggs, T. (2014). Oil-hurricane mix could spell disaster for Gulf areas. Web. This article contains the perspectives of several environmental experts and scientists concerning the effects of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on seafood and the coastal populations. The perspectives are based on the interviews conducted after the oil spill. IEM. (2010). A study of the economic impacts of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. New York: IEM. This report was prepared by the IEM, which is a leading global security consulting firm. The repor t highlights the economic impacts of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on the seafood industry. It covers issues such as reduced supply of seafood after the oil spill. Kaushik, A. (2006). Perspectives in Environmental Studies. New York, NY : McGrwa-Hill. This textbook is meant for students in colleges and universities. It covers several topics in environmental studies such as conservation, pollution, and oil spills in the sea. It provided vital information concerning the effects of oil on seafood and the techniques for managing the effects. Krisberg, K. (2010). U.S. Gulf oil spill poses public health threat: Responses targeting workers, residents, food, and air quality. This article was obtained from the Nation Health, which is a monthly publication of the American Public Health Association. The article provides information on the strategies that are used to clean up the sea after an oil spill. Michel, J, Shigenaka, G Hoff, R. (2013). Oils spill response and cleanup techniques. This article was obtained from the website of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which is a federal agency that conducts scientific research on oceans. The article provides insights on the methods for responding to the effects of oil spills in the sea. Trevors, J. Saier, M. (2010). The legacy of oil spills. Water Air Soil Pollut, 211(1), 1-3. This peer-reviewed journal article provides information on various effects of oil spills. Thus, it was useful for obtaining information concerning the effects of oil spill on seafood. Upton, H. (2011). The Deeepwater Horizon oil spill and the Gulf of Mexico fishing industry. Washington D.C: Congressional Research Service . This report was prepared for the US Congress by the Congressional Research Service. It highlights the effects of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on the supply of seafood such as fish in Mexico and Florida. This report on Effect of Oil Spills on Seafood was written and submitted by user Natalie Noel to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Troubleshooting Problems in Crystal Growing

Troubleshooting Problems in Crystal Growing There may come a time when you will try to grow a crystal without success. Here are some ideas for possible problems and ways to correct them: No Crystal Growth This is usually caused by using a solution that isnt saturated. The cure is to dissolve more solute into the liquid. Stirring and applying heat can help to get solute into solution. Keep adding solute until you start to see some accumulate at the bottom of your container. Let it settle out of solution, then pour or siphon the solution off, being careful not to pick up undissolved solute. If you dont have any more solute to use, you can take some comfort in knowing that the solution will become more concentrated over time, as evaporation removes some of the solvents. You can speed this process by increasing the temperature where your crystals are growing or by increasing air circulation. Remember, your solution should be loosely covered with a cloth or paper to prevent contamination, not sealed. Saturation Problems If you are sure your solution is saturated, try to eliminate these other common reasons for the lack of crystal growth: Too much vibration:Â  Keep your crystal set up in a quiet, undisturbed location.Contaminant in the solution:Â  The fix is to re-make your solution. The fix only works if you can avoid contamination (wont work if your starting solute is the problem). Common contaminants include oxides from paper clips or pipe cleaners (if youre using them), detergent residue on the container, dust or something else falling into the container.Inappropriate temperature:Â  Experiment with temperature; you may need to increase the temperature around your crystals to get them to grow (increases evaporation). For some crystals, you may need to decrease the temperature (which slows the molecules down and gives them a chance to bind together).Solution cooled too quickly or slowly:Â  Did you heat your solution to saturate it? Should you heat it? Should you cool it? Experiment with this variable. If the temperature changed from the time you made the solution to the present time, the rate of cooling might ma ke a difference. You can increase the rate of cooling by putting the fresh solution in a refrigerator or freezer (faster) or leave it on a warm stove or in an insulated container (slower). If the temperature didnt change, maybe it should (heat the initial solution). Water wasnt pure:Â  If you used tap water, try re-making the solution using distilled water. If you have access to a chemistry lab, try deionized water that was purified by distillation or reverse osmosis. Remember: water is only as clean as its container! The same rules apply to other solvents.Too much light:Â  An unlikely problem with home crystals, but for certain materials, the energy from light can inhibit the formation of chemical bonds.No seed crystals:Â  If you are trying to grow a large single crystal, you will need to get a seed crystal first. For some substances, the seed crystals may form spontaneously on the side of the container. For others, you may need to pour a small amount onto a saucer and let it evaporate to get crystals. Sometimes crystals will grow best on a rough string suspended into the liquid. The composition of the string is important! You are more likely to get crystal growth on cotton or wool string than on nylon or a fluoropolymer.Seed crystals dissol ve when placed in the new container:Â  This happens when the solution isnt fully saturated. See above for details.

Political Science - President Clinton and President Obama Term Paper

Political Science - President Clinton and President Obama - Term Paper Example Obama, on the other hand, inherited one of the worst recessions in American history and has struggled to ensure adequate economic progress. Through an examination of key issues in the first two years of President Clinton and President Obama’s terms in office -- including economic, health care, foreign policy, and their appeal to youth culture – this essay considers the extent that the two presidencies can be equated. When considering economics in the first two years of their presidencies, there are a number of similarities that President Obama and President Clinton experienced. When both Presidents took office the nation was considered to be in a recession period. For President Obama, the recession was recognized as perhaps the most severe since the Great Depression and became a central issue in the campaign process. As a result, the stimulus package that was passed early in the Obama Presidency has functioned as a core issue of his presidency, with a fierce debate among Republicans and Democrats continuing to unfold as to the actual efficacy of the program. Even as President Obama has admitted that the financial situation in the country has not fully recovered, his budget indicates that he will continue to pursue his ambitious domestic agenda. In explaining his domestic agenda Obama contests that, â€Å"Just as it would be a terrible mistake to borrow against our children’s future to pay our way today, it would be equally wrong to neglect their future by failing to invest in areas that will determine our economic success in this new century.† (Calmers 2010) Obama’s indicates that the country’s deficit will increase this year to its highest post-World War II level, and then gradually decrease over the decade. Obama argues that his budget will save over $1 trillion by ending the previous administration’s tax cuts and by enacting a three-year spending freeze.  Ã‚  

Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Globalization - Essay Example With the rise of globalization, sovereignty is now loosing its advantage in various aspects but is still considered by realists to be an important matter especially in the protection of internal affairs. To the realist, sovereignty is not just a display of supreme power but also gives the idea of ‘equality of nations’ where no one nation-state is superior over the other but are of the same level while one state’s need of others is maintained by the protection of internal affairs of each nation. In such a situation, a consensus is needed for the declaration of the sovereignty of one nation over the others. Thus it is the realist’s opinion that sovereignty should be reduced as suggested by Henry Schermers , as ‘the world community takes over sovereignty of territories with the world community having sufficient means to help existing states with their weaknesses and failures (Jackson 2003, p. 787). Secretary General Annan on the other hand, believes that a global era requires a global engagement (Jackson 2003, p.

Hitler Social Problem Essay Example for Free

Hitler Social Problem Essay The topic I will be researching as my social problem will be World War Two and Hitler. This topic reminds me of the quote I’ve chosen by Abraham Lincoln, â€Å"Nearly all men can stand adversity, but if you want to test a man’s character, give him power. † This reminds me of Hitler because Hitler was a descent man before he gained power. In this social problem Hitler holds the power. He is able to control a whole army and make them kill the Jewish people. I will be talking about Hitler’s early years his time during war how he controlled his army and so much more. Adolf Hitler was born in Austria on April 20 in 1889 he had six siblings. By the time he was three his family moved from to Germany. When Hitler was a chided h clashed often with his father. Hitler was detached and introverted he differed from his father, because his father didn’t approve of Hitler’s interest in art rather than business. Hitler also showed an interested in German nationalism. The nationalism was his motivating force in his life. Once Hitler was a young man he worked as a watercolor painter and casual laborer. He applied to the Academy of Fine Arts and got rejected twice. He lived in a homeless shelter for several years. During the time of WWI Hitler applied to serve in Germany’s army he was accepted in August of 1914. Hitler was a decorated soldier he had received a metal for bravery, Iron Cross First Class, and Black Wound Badge. Hitler wasn’t satisfied with the collapse of the war effort this reinforced his passion for Germany patriotism; he was shocked by Germanys surrender in 1918. He believed that the German army was betrayed by civilian leaders and Marxists. After WWI Hitler returned home and continued work for the military as an intelligence officer. Hitler was invited to join DAP (the German workers party) and he did in 1919. In 1921 Hitler replaced Drexler as the new DAP; NSDAP Chairman. In front of 3000 people at a large beer hall in Munich Hitler announced that the national revolution had begun and declared a new formation of a new government. Three days after this Hitler was arrested and tried for high treason he had a year in prison. During this time he written his first book â€Å"Mein Kampf Vol. 1† this book outlined his plans to transform German society into a society based on race. Hitler’s rise to power begins, The Great Depression in Germany provided Hitler with a great political opportunity. The Germans were more open to extremist options in government because their faith in their current government is failing. Hitler used this to his advantage. After Hitler lost the presidency vote he was appointed as chancellor in order to promote political balance. He used his position to form legal dictatorship. Having gained control mover legislative and executive branches of Government, Hitler and his political allies embarked on a systematic suppression of the rest of the political opposition. By the end of June the other parties disbanded. After July 1933 Hitler’s Nazi party was the only legal political party in Germany. The day before Hindenburg’s death in August of 1934 the cabinet had made a law inactivating the office of president and leaving all the power to the chancellor. Hitler thus becoming head of state, and was named as Germany’s leader and chancellor. As head of state Hitler had full control of the armed forces. Hitler withdrew from the League of Nations. Thus concluding his rise to power. Hitler’s beliefs were a nation for racial hygiene. New laws included banning marriage between non-Jewish and Jewish Germans, and deprived â€Å"non-Aryans† of the benefits of German citizenship. His early eugenic politics targeted children with mental or physical disabilities then later targeting adults with the same disability. More groups the Nazis targeted were the Jewish people, communists, homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witness, trade unionists, among others. However Hitler never spoke publicly about the killings of these groups of people. Hitler got people to believe in his beliefs by using the great depression to his advantage, people at this time wanted a change and he provided them with one. He also told people of the conspiracy involving the Jewish people. This was Hitler’s use of ethos in his speeches. This is what convinced people to believe this was the right thing happening. You see Hitler was a descent man as you read in his early years. He was descent until he got power. This is why Hitler reminds me of Abraham Lincoln’s quote â€Å"Nearly all men ca stands adversity, but if you want to test a man’s character give him power. † Hitler was given power, and his character turned sour and ended up killing thousands of people.

Technology - Digital Video and Copyright Fair Use Essay -- Exploratory

Digital Video and Copyright Fair Use Abstract: Video is one of the most compelling forms of communication of this time. Over the course of the past few years, the gradual but sure drift from analog to digital in video technology has not only improved the abilities of visual communication media to distribute data, but has also improved their abilities to manipulate the data that they distribute. Digital video technology has advanced to the extent that still image manipulation has been usurped by more powerful technological developments that allow elements of a video image to be manipulated in real-time. That is, objects or persons in a video image can be edited out or edited in while the image is in broadcast without the slightest glitch to suggest that some change has occurred; everything would look â€Å"real.† The advantages that this technology opens for visual media are extensive. Similar to some technologies, however, it opens up an exploitive edge. Pixels are plastic (can be changed) and using them to distort or mani pulate reality is an opportunity open to all users of video manipulation tools. The ethics of such uses and the social considerations of how copyright laws would deal with a technology which manipulates digital works of authorship, works to which copyright automatically attaches, are issues worth considering. This paper explores the possible and actual, reputable and less reputable uses of this technology in an attempt to stimulate discussions about how â€Å"well-intended† technologies can be utilized by users in unethical and harmful ways. The paper also attempts to see where possible infringements of copyright’s fair use doctrine has occurred or could possibly occur through use of this technology. A n... ...pinions. Despite the many issues connected to this technology however, the advantages it offers surpass any disadvantages seen thus far. References 1. Amato, Ivan. Lying with Pixels, Technology Review, Cambridge, Jul/Aug 2000. p.61. 2. See reference 1 above. 3. See reference 1, p.62. 4. See reference 3 above. 5. Royal Philips Electronics, Imaging : its digital future, Briefing, Volume 3, Issue 2, article no. 19. 6. See reference 1, p.64. 7. See reference 1 p. 65. 8. Samuelson, Pamela. Copyright’s fair use doctrine and digital data, Association for Computing Machinery., Communications of the ACM; vol. 37, Issue 1; New York, 1994. p. 22. 9. See reference 8, p.23. Additional:- Samuelson, Pamela. Copyright and Digital Libraries. (class material)http://web5.computer-select.com/csweb/session/329/331/ (Article - Free Video Hosting)

Should we negotiate with terrorists?

Terrorism is a worldwide problem that has devastating effects.   It deprives people of the freedom to travel and enjoy themselves for fear of terrorist attacks.   It subjects innocent people to assaults, kidnappings and murders as they are used as pawns in deadly political games. The question of whether a government should negotiate with terrorists has been widely debated.   Some think it is beneficial.  Ã‚   Others think it does more harm than good.   This paper will explore some arguments both for supporting and against negotiation with terrorists. Arguments supporting negotiation with terrorists Saving lives The most obvious and immediate advantage of negotiating with terrorists is the saving of lives.   If terrorists hold many innocent people hostage in exchange for the fulfilment of their demands, then negotiating with them would most likely result in the expeditious saving of those people. This view supports the idea that everything should be done to save a life. Enables communication, learning and understanding of terrorists. Negotiating enables communication with the terrorists and can therefore lead to a greater understanding of them, as well as a greater capacity to influence them, which may help resolve the conflicts between the terrorists and the government and may even open the way for peace.   Communication with terrorists can also aid in acquiring valuable intelligence that can be later used against them. Al Qaeda appears to be open to negotiation Some experts have argued that Jihad is a defensive doctrine, and the attacks against the West should be understood as retaliatory, provoked attacks which would cease if the West gives in to their demands of reduced military presence in Islamic countries, political and military aid to Israel, and aid to other Middle Eastern countries (Zalman 2007). Ayman Al Zawahiri, Al Qaeda’s deputy leader, has said words that suggest a willingness to negotiate.   He stated in December 2006 that the United States will be negotiating and failing in Iraq, until it is ‘forced to return to negotiate with the real powers’ (Zalman 2007). All solutions must be tried before terrorist groups obtain nuclear weapons An argument for negotiation is that it can put a halt to terrorists before they obtain nuclear weapons. There are constant indications that Osama Bin Laden is searching for nuclear materials (Zalman 2007), and it can be argued that everything should be done, including negotiating, to stop the threat of nuclear war which of course would result in an enormous amount of innocent deaths. Arguments against negotiation with terrorists. More lives are saved in the long-run The biggest reason to not negotiate with terrorists is that it serves as an incentive for terrorists to keep making demands, in this way encouraging more terrorist activity. In the long run, if terrorists know that governments will not negotiate with them, they are unlikely to keep making demands.   For example, during the terrorist school siege in Beslan, Russia did not negotiate with the terrorists.   It can be argued that the people who died in Beslan would not have died if Russia had negotiated with the terrorists and had given them what they wanted.   However, in the long run, Russia disencouraged terrorists from holding schools ransom or trying similar stunts by showing them that such attempts to negotiate are unsuccessful. Negotiation is ineffective and a sign of weakness Terrorist groups such as Al Qaeda are considered to be radical Islamic extremists who seek the destruction of all negotiations with the United States and its allies (Zalman 2007).   Therefore, negotiating with them would be ineffective.   Moreover, it will be seen as a sign of weakness and would encourage them to exploit it. Negotiating with terrorists rewards terrorist activity and destabilizes honest political systems By negotiating with terrorists, a government can be argued to be rewarding terrorists for their violent behaviour, something which should never be done.   If terrorists are given what they want, they will come back and ask for more. Furthermore, negotiating with terrorists erodes and weakens the value of non -violent and pacifist means of achieving political change (Zalman 2007).   Negotiation with terrorists destabilizes political systems by encouraging terrorists to keep making demands, and establishes a dangerous precedent (Zalman 2007). Terrorists may not honor the terms of their demands Terrorists cannot be trusted to comply with the terms of a negotiation.   Truces with terrorist groups don’t always hold, as has been the case with Israel and Hamas, and with Spain and ETA (Zalman 2007). Furthermore, even a truce with a terrorist leader, for example Osama Bin Laden, does not guarantee that the entire worldwide Al Qaeda terrorist group will honor the terms of the truce.   This makes negotiating harder and less effective. Bibliography Zalman, A. (2007). Why Not Negotiate with Terrorists- -Pros and Cons of Talking to Al Qaeda. (Online) Retrieved April 2 2007. http://terrorism.about.com/od/globalwaronterror/i/NegotiateQaeda.